The Important Role of US Third Parties

While their candidates for President of the United States and Congress have little chance of being elected, America’s third political parties have historically played a major role in bringing about sweeping social, cultural, and political reform. Womens Right to Vote Both the Prohibition and Socialist Parties promoted the womens suffrage movement during the late 1800s. By 1916, both Republicans and Democrats supported it and by 1920, the 19th Amendment giving women the right to vote had been ratified. Child Labor Laws The Socialist Party first advocated laws establishing minimum ages and limiting hours of work for American children in 1904. The Keating-Owen Act established such laws in 1916. Immigration Restrictions The Immigration Act of 1924 came about as a result of support by the Populist Party starting as early as the early 1890s. Reduction of Working Hours You can thank the Populist and Socialist Parties for the 40-hour work week. Their support for reduced working hours during the 1890s led to the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. Income Tax In the 1890s, the Populist and Socialist Parties supported a progressive tax system that would base a persons tax liability on their amount of income. The idea led to the ratification of the 16th Amendment in 1913. Social Security The Socialist Party also supported a fund to provide temporary compensation for the unemployed in the late 1920s. The idea led to the creation of laws establishing unemployment insurance and the Social Security Act of 1935. Tough on Crime In 1968, the American Independent Party and its presidential candidate George Wallace advocated getting tough on crime. The Republican Party adopted the idea in its platform and the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968 was the result. (George Wallace won 46 electoral votes in the 1968 election. This was the highest number of electoral votes collected by a third party candidate since Teddy Roosevelt, running for the Progressive Party in 1912, won  a total of  88 votes.) America’s First Political Parties The Founding Fathers wanted the American federal government and its inevitable politics to remain non-partisan. As a result, the U.S. Constitution makes no mention whatsoever of political parties. In Federalist Papers No. 9 and No. 10, Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, respectively refer to the dangers of political factions they had observed in the British government. America’s first president, George Washington, never joined a political party and warned against the stagnation and conflict they can cause in his Farewell Address. â€Å"However [political parties] may now and then answer popular ends, they are likely in the course of time and things, to become potent engines, by which cunning, ambitious, and unprincipled men will be enabled to subvert the power of the people and to usurp for themselves the reins of government, destroying afterwards the very engines which have lifted them to unjust dominion.† — George Washington, Farewell Address, September 17, 1796 However, it was Washington’s own closest advisers who spawned the American political party system. Hamilton and Madison, despite writing against political factions in the Federalist Papers, became the core leaders of the first two functional opposing political parties. Hamilton emerged as the leader of the Federalists, who favored a strong central government, while Madison and Thomas Jefferson led the Anti-Federalists, who stood for a smaller, less-powerful central government. It was the early battles between the Federalists and Anti-Federalists that spawned the environment of partisanship that now dominates all levels of American government.   Leading Modern Third Parties While the following is far from all of the recognized third parties in American politics, the Libertarian, Reform, Green, and Constitution Parties are usually the most active in presidential elections. Libertarian Party Founded in 1971, the Libertarian party is the third largest political party in America. Over the years, Libertarian Party candidates have been elected to many state and local offices. Libertarians believe the  federal government  should play a minimal role in the day-to-day affairs of the people. They believe that the only appropriate role of government is to protect the citizens from acts of physical force or fraud. A libertarian-style government would, therefore, limit itself to a police, court, prison system and military. Members support the free market economy and are dedicated to the protection of civil liberties and individual freedom. Reform Party In 1992, Texan H. Ross Perot spent over $60 million of his own money to run for president as an independent. Perots national organization, known as United We Stand America succeeded in getting Perot on the ballot in all 50 states. Perot won 19 percent of the vote in November, the best result for a third party candidate in 80 years. Following the 1992 election, Perot and United We Stand America organized into the Reform Party. Perot again ran for president as the Reform Party candidate in 1996 winning 8.5 percent of the vote. As its name implies, Reform Party members are dedicated to reforming the American political system. They support candidates they feel will re-establish trust in government by displaying high ethical standards coupled with fiscal responsibility and accountability. Green Party The American Green Partys platform is based on the following 10 Key Values: Ecological wisdomCommunity-based economicsGrassroots democracyDecentralizationGender equalityPersonal and social responsibilityRespect for diversityNonviolenceGlobal responsibility Greens seek to restore balance through recognizing that our planet and all of life are unique aspects of an integrated whole, and also through affirming the significant inherent values and contribution of each part of that whole. The Green Party - Hawaii Constitution Party In 1992, American Taxpayer Party presidential candidate Howard Phillips appeared on the ballot in 21 states. Mr. Phillips again ran in 1996, achieving ballot access in 39 states. At its national convention in 1999, the party officially changed its name to the Constitution Party and again chose Howard Phillips as its presidential candidate for 2000. The Constitution Party favors a government based on a strict interpretation of the U.S. Constitution and the principals expressed in it by the Founding Fathers. They support a government limited in scope, structure, and power of regulation over the people. Under this goal, the Constitution Party favors a return of most governmental powers to the states, communities and the people.

The Effects Of Fossil Fuel Energy On The Environment And...

In the last decades energy consumption has come to a time where people started noticing the climate changes and the effect of fossil fuel energy for not only being environmentally destructive, but also causing Global warming (the warming that occurs as a result of increase emissions of greenhouse gases) has become a very big issue worldwide. The fossil fuels (Oil, Coal, and Natural Gas) which is the main sources of the world’s energy sources, is also one of the main causes of the climate change. In addition with some human activities (e.g. through burning fossil fuels), they have contributed immensely to the global warming, which has also affected the climate conditions in the world. The affect of these changes has prompted some people to propose alternative energy like solar panels. According to Abby Gruen, after realizing the issues, the engineers at Bell Laboratories come up with the first useful photovoltaic cell, an alternative to fossil fuel energy but less harmful for t he environment and the pocket. Solar panel which uses renewable energy like the sun to light homes heat and produces electricity. Unlike fossil fuel, solar panels is less harmful for the environment. Since it creation few decades ego, just recently solar panel started getting popular in homes in the United States and around the world. When it was invented people were not interested about it, because of the high installation price, however the price has changed dramatically since then. Even thoughShow MoreRelatedSolar Energy : Solar Panels999 Words   |  4 PagesSolar Energy: Solar Panels In the last decades energy consumption has come to a time where people started noticing the climate changes and the effect of fossil fuel energy for not only being environmentally destructive but also causing Global warming (the warming that occurs as a result of increase emissions of greenhouse gases) has become a very big issue worldwide. The fossil fuels (Oil, Coal, and Natural Gas) which is the main sources of the world’s energy sources have negative natural emissionsRead MoreSolar Energy : Solar Panels961 Words   |  4 PagesSolar Energy: Solar Panels In the last decades energy consumption have come to a time where people started noticing the climate changes and the effect of fossil fuel energy for been environmentally destructive, by producing pollutions and other effect. After realizing the effect engineers come up with solar panel, an alternative to fossil fuel energy but less harmful for the environment and the pocket. Solar panels which uses renewable energy like the sun to light homes heat and produces electricityRead MoreCan Sustainable Energy and Fossil Fuel Co-Exist1389 Words   |  6 PagesCan Sustainable Energy and Fossil Fuel Co-Exist? In recent years, the question of America’s power source has been the topic on more than a few dinner and boardroom tables across the country. In fact, it is even talked about in the offices of governors and the POTUS. The reason why so many people are raising this question is the rise in petroleum prices and the depletion of natural resources. The rising prices of petroleum is not a new thing; It has happening for decades, but the American peopleRead MoreThe Effects Of Fossil Fuels On The Health Of The General Population1149 Words   |  5 PagesFossil fuels are necessary for our country to be kept alive. Natural gas, Coal, and oil are very important resources that we use a daily bases to run almost everything you see. Nearly 90% of our country runs of fossil fuels that are non-renewable. The problem with this is that there are cost and effects to using these fossil fuels. Cost of paying for the jobs needed to change these fossil fuels into energy is a very big cost that com es out of every Americans pocket. To pay for these cost we haveRead MoreRenewable Energy : Global Warming And Pollution1070 Words   |  5 Pagesthe energy sources the United States has access to, 83.6% of the energy used in 2013 were fossil fuels. Being the leading country in energy consumption, and the amount of alternative energy available to the US, it is no wonder that the general population is concerned with global warming and pollution. The use of fossil fuels has increased pollution in the United States from 2013 to 2014 by 3.4%. The public pressure to address this energy crisis has lead Germany to decrease their use of fossil fuelsRead MoreThe World s First Electric Light Essay1326 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction Many centuries ago people did not need much energy. Back then, people used the sun or burned wood and straw for heat. People used the wind force in sails or horses to go anywhere in the world and used animals to do the work humans could not do. Although, humans did use simple machines that could ground grain, pump water, and even utilize steam power. Steam engines transformed over time and by the 18th century the modern steam engine, fueled by coal, could do the job of a team of horsesRead MoreThe Sources Of Fossil Fuels1429 Words   |  6 PagesThis paper will discuss the three main fossil fuels which are oil, coal, and natural gas. This research shows how the fossil fuels are formed, where they could be found, and explain how they were formed over millions of years. 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Although newer, more sustainable sources of generating power becomeRead MoreGlobal Warming And Its Effects On Our Communities, Our Health, And Our Climate1145 Words   |  5 Pagesglobal warming, widespread fossil fuel use, and high carbon emissions are â€Å"having significant and harmful effects on our communities, our health, and our climate† (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2014). â€Å"To limit [this], the world is going to have to get a lot better at using energy smartly† (Hope, 2014). One such way is by reducing the amount of energy we consume or waste on a daily b asis; in other words, being more energy efficient. Energy Efficiency is â€Å"using less energy to provide the same service

Viewpoint of Complex Adaptive Systems †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Viewpoint of Complex Adaptive Systems. Answer: Introduction: Scope creep refers to the situation where, additional requirements from the clients can make the expansion of the project (Sarosa and Tatnall 2015). In most cases the requirements provided in the scope creep are not pre defined in the initial requirement stage of the project. An example can define the situation of scope creep clearly. In a project of developing the online ticket booing system certain requirements are provided by the clients to the developers. The clients can add more specification like adding extra link for the time checking or changing the view a certain user view of the ticket. These modifications are not a part of initial requirements, but the developers have to work on those modifications as per the requirement of the client. Sometimes the scope creep can occur in case of choosing technologies also. The developers can realize the usefulness of a new technology in the middle of developing a project using certain technology (Janssen, Van Der and van Veenstra 2015). In this case the changes are made accordingly. In the railway reservation system development, the scope creep was to change the user vie of the ticket. This task was manageable, which means the developers can modify the code to change the user view of the ticket. The addition of the extra link for time checking was not possible at that stage of the project as that modification can lead to change the major structural change of the whole project. Ways to avoid the scope creep: In order to avoid the scope creep the requirements should be clear from the clients side, whereas the developers should understand the requirements clearly (Snyder 2014). In this case, the clear understanding between the client and the developers about the requirements are needed to be done. Determination of the technique for handling the change of control is also useful for the prevention of scope creep. The identification of the types of changes that can be possible to make are needed to be evaluated in the beginning of the project. Sometimes the scope creep can help to improvise the project (Madhuri, Suma and Mokashi 2018). In case of railway reservation system the changing of the view of ticket helps to present the product in a more proper way. The addition of the extra link for time checking can improvise the project. However, that can not be done due to the technical reason. Sometimes scope creep enables the option of considering the use of new technologies in the development. References Janssen, M., Van Der Voort, H. and van Veenstra, A.F., 2015. Failure of large transformation projects from the viewpoint of complex adaptive systems: Management principles for dealing with project dynamics.Information Systems Frontiers,17(1), pp.15-29. Madhuri, K.L., Suma, V. and Mokashi, U.M., 2018. A triangular perception of scope creep influencing the project success.International Journal of Business Information Systems,27(1), pp.69-85. Sarosa, S. and Tatnall, A., 2015. Failure to launch: Scope creep and other causes of failure from an actor-network theory perspective.International Journal of Actor-Network Theory and Technological Innovation (IJANTTI),7(4), pp.1-13. Snyder, C.S., 2014. A guide to the project management body of knowledge: PMBOK () guide.Project Management Institute: Newtown Square, PA, USA.

Two Versions of Romeo and Juliet Comparison Essay Example

Two Versions of Romeo and Juliet Comparison Essay We have watched two versions of Romeo and Juliet. We have to investigate the difference between the opening sequences of them both. One was made in 1968 by a man called Franco Zeffirelli and was set in Verona, Italy, in the middle Ages. The other film was by a man named Baz Luhrmann; he made this film in 1996. This version was set in America and is very modern. The opening scene of any film is extremely important because it can play a major role in establishing key elements throughout the rest of the film. The beginning of a film gives the first impression to the audience so it is very important to get right. Romeo and Juliet is a romantic tragedy by the famous writer William Shakespeare. The story is based on two young people who fall in love with each other. The trouble thing is that their families are enemies. Romeo the boy that comes from a family called the Montagues and Juliet, (only 13) comes from a family called the Capulets. The Montague family and the Capulet family detest each other. So Romeo and Juliet realising their family hating each other they decide not to tell their parents of their love for each other. The Luhrmann version starred Leonardo DiCaprio and Claire Danes. Both these actors were already famous established actors. They are very well known, this must have added to the popularity of the film as both actors are considered as idols and sex symbols. The stars in the Zeffirelli version were Olivia Hussey and Leonard Whiting. Both these actors were completely unknown. By picking unknown actors of the streets it show that Zeffirelli wanted to show the youth of Romeo and Juliet and make it more realistic to the audience. We will write a custom essay sample on Two Versions of Romeo and Juliet Comparison specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Two Versions of Romeo and Juliet Comparison specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Two Versions of Romeo and Juliet Comparison specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The problem that faced Baz Luhrmann when he was directing the new version of Romeo and Juliet was that he didnt know whether there would be an audience for Shakespearean stories in a modern culture. So Luhrmann didnt make this film with the old-fashioned, Shakespeare purist in mind. Instead, by using lively, modern images with a modern rock soundtrack and young good-looking popular actors, he has taken Romeo and Juliet to an audience that would normally think of Shakespeare as a boring subject that they were forced to study at school. He put an old story in a completely modern setting and it worked extremely well. Baz Luhrmanns version was very modern. You could see that some of his main influences were from the very popular music channel MTV. Baz Luhrmann worked for MTV; this is a 20th century music channel, which uses fast, rapid shots and cinematography. Luhrmann portrays these techniques and his skills in using them to influence the opening scene of the film. By using very fast editing of pictures and introducing the characters like a soap opera it make s the audience more familiar with the film because we see it on our TVs everyday. Baz Luhrmann trained at the prestigious National Institute of Dramatic Arts in Sydney; Luhrmann has worked as an actor, director, and producer. The Prologue was used in the play as a way for people to know what was going to happen if they should miss sections and so they could get the general gist of it. In the modern film adaptation the Prologue plays a huge part at the beginning of the film. It is played 3 times over. Once by the news reporter on the televis ion, again on signs around Verona City, and again as text flashing on the screen. In the film the prologue is used to wet peoples appetite and get them interested and exited- loud powerful music and action during the prologue do this effectively. The director has also done the clever thing of making each scene contrast from the previous and the next. This juxtaposition not only makes the film more exiting to watch, but can highlight differences in peoples feelings and actions, and how it can effect others. A point where this can be seen is after Romeo and Juliet have been married, a scene of much joy and hope is contrasted sharply with the following more violent scene. In this scene Mercutio is killed by Tybalt, a scene where there is a raging sea and no sign of hope, and it is apparent that their marriage isnt going to work out at all. Baz Luhrmann also makes many references to the person who wrote the play- Shakespeare. The pool Hall where Romeo and his friends hang out is called the Globe Theatre, all the guns used are called Swords, it is almost like he is trying to pay a tribute to the writer. At the beginning of Baz Luhrmanns version of Romeo and Juliet, we see a black female news reporter presenting to us the prologue as a news report. Firstly the news reporter is female, in 1968 women were not as independent as they are nowadays they had some rights but it was unlikely that a women would be presenting the news. This breaks all the stereotypical views of men and women and also introduces the 21st century ways of equality. The news report shows us the effectiveness of media. Secondly, the news reporter was black this is something that would have been unheard of at this time. There is a picture of a broken ring in the corner of the television screen. The broken ring in the background symbolises the two families and their feud. We then enter Verona beach via the television screen, where the prologue is then repeated to us with the images and the quotes.The camera zooms in and out of the shot with the words in fair Verona in between each shot. The harsh music in the background increases the tension and heightens the drama. It makes the audiences want to keep on watching and find out more. It cuts from a black background straight to a close up of Jesus head, making religious features remain in the viewers mind. We see the statue of Jesus in between the twin towers, symbolising that Jesus is a referee between the two families. There is also a lot of religious imagery keeping with the original story set in Verona, Italy, a catholic country. The twin towers represent the two families both alike in status and in wealth. The familys feud is secured in the minds of the audience with lots of fast movement and editing of the Virgin Mary, police, cars, Verona beach, helicopters, businesses and dead bodies. There is a backdrop of religion, money and hate. This montage of imagery sets the scene for the audience. Characters are introduced like in a 20th century soap opera. Quotes from the prologue into a visual form helps the audiences view and supports their understanding of the play. More quick edits of television reports, magazines and newspapers implying that media is very important. The harsh, fast, dramatic music fades into modern 21st century music to begin the play. Music is a big factor that heightens the opening scene of Luhrmanns Romeo and Juliet. This is motivated from Luhrmanns experiences at MTV. The music is dramatic and encourages the audience to continue watching the film. It is played throughout the opening scen e. The music slowly fades into modern rock music and the first scene has begun. Zeffirelli was an actor before he started directing films. He was especially successful for costume designing and for operas and stage plays. His version of Romeo and Juliet was more traditional and the costumes that were used also influenced the style of the film. You can immediately see that Zeffirellis past experiences influenced this film a lot. His version of the film has a strong operatic feel. As soon as Zeffirellis version is played you get the impression that this film is quite old and very traditional. In Zeffirellis version we see a picture, which is presumed to be Verona, the original setting for Romeo and Juliet, the picture is quite faint is difficult to make out what is in it. The picture has a border around it. We hear reminiscent medieval music, which is well suited with the picture, it is quite slow. We soon hear a voiceover of the prologue and the camera zooming in and out of the sun. There is suddenly a change of scene to the town wall. A dramatic sound is played and the colour brightens and the noise level increases. The film is then more vibrant. It is a very simple opening. But this was standard technology in then days. It has clearly been shown that Luhrmanns opening sequence of Romeo and Juliet is more appealing and time consuming. This is due to the increase in modern technology. Zeferrelli was not able to use all the technology that Luhrmann could use, as that type of technology was not available at the time of Zefferillis production of Romeo and Juliet. Although high-tech technology wasnt available 30 years ago, basic technology was, so Zefferilli made use of this technology and achieved an Oscar for this film. Zefferellis opening scene is much slower in contrast to the fast and furious opening of Luhrmanns version. Zeffirellis opening was set in a market square whereas Luhrmanns opening was in a petrol station. Although technology was limited 30 years ago the editing and the effects were somewhat lacking in the Zeffirelli version compared to Luhrmann version. At the beginning of both of the films, there is a prologue to the play. A prologue introduces a play and sums up what is going to happen. The prologue in both the Luhrmanns version and Zefferillis is presented very differently. Luhrmanns presented with a newsreader whereas Zefferillis is a man with a deep voice giving a voice over. Black female presents the prologue in Luhrmanns version as a news report. Whereas in Zeffirellis version it is presented by a man in with a very deep voice. He presents the prologue in a very slow and dreary way. This goes well with the pan shot of Verona, which is very dark and looks quite dreary. A newsreader is saying the prologue of Romeo and Juliet. The newsreader then fades out and the viewer is shown empires, belonging to the Capulets and Montagues. This is meant to show you that the two families are both alike in dignity and in wealth. In Zeffirellis film, we are simply told this and lead to believe it. In Luhrmanns version we get a more detailed insight to the story we see clips from the film and we meet the characters. In Zeffirellis we are left to wonder what is going to happen in the film. I think both techniques work well. Zeffirellis technique makes the audience want to carry on watching because they are interested in the film. Luhrmanns technique gives the audience just enough previews to make them want to carry on watching to see what is going to happen, but not too much to give away the plot. Personally I preferred Luhrmanns version of Romeo and Juliet because it was more dramatic it made you want to carry on watching it. Whereas the Zeffirelli version was very long and dreary to start off with. I think it puts the audience off a bit. I think with Zeffirelli version only Shakespeare fans will want to watch it because it is a lot like the play. Whereas the Luhrmann version, everyone can get into because it has a lot of aspects that suit everyone. I am more used to seeing the ways the images are presented in his film in my everyday television programs so I was put off watching it I didnt find it boring or get drawn out of watching it. Whereas because of the lack of technology it makes the Zeffirelli version look boring to my generation. The Luhrmann version however will appeal to everyone. In conclusion, I think that the original text had to be edited in some way for to have worked as a film, especially as it was aimed at teenagers. Despite the heavy editing at some points during the play, and some scenes edited out to make the film, I dont feel that I have had any major understanding detracted, or indeed added. However, if I hadnt read the original text before I watched the film then I agree that I may have taken what I saw as being how William Shakespeare originally wrote the play. Especially since there is no hint of information at any point in the film that it is from an edited text. It even says on the front cover of the video and on posters etc. for the Luhrmann adaptation that it is William Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet. This was probably done so that no-one would think that Baz Luhrmann is trying to take credit for the play itself, however it could be confusing.

Negative Impacts of Video Game Consoles Essays

Negative Impacts of Video Game Consoles Essays Negative Impacts of Video Game Consoles Essay Negative Impacts of Video Game Consoles Essay The biggest challenges of video game consoled not only come from the competition between consoles developers but also from statistics revealing the facts that violent are the results of television and video games. Several researches indicated that effects of playing violent games are weaker than viewing violent television. The arguments are based on several assumptions: First, realism is important to increase the extent of influence posed by a media. Children are more likely to be influenced by video games and imitate aggressive acts if violence is depicted more realistically. Because video games tend to have poorer quality of graphics, some people expect them to have less impact on children aggression. Second, violent actions that are easier to imitate will impose more influence to children. Some of the violent actions in the video games –like shooting spaceships, shooting incoming missiles, etc. The fall of Sega gives us a lesson about the importance of marketing research in order to determine the market demands while minimizing the potential threats that might disarm a product’s strength. In the case of Sega, the failure occurred due to the persistence of marketing research department to force production department to develop CD-based video game consoles. It turns out consumers were not used to using it. The history of successful video games consoles can be separated with famous games that accompanied them. Nintendo, for example, once won the market when introduced Super Mario Brothers, which become a famous game. Therefore, in the fiture, video games manufacturers should conduct win-win patnership win contents/games developer. One of famous games developers is Electronic Arts that have produced several legendary games such as FIFA, NBA, and many sports-related games (Gamingredients Playphoria, 2005). Conclusion Television and video games have important roles in today’s societies since they inform us about the recent news happened in other part of the world and become media for people to relax themselves by playing games. Several months ago, the facts that many people were in line at midnight to buy the new Microsoft Xbox, the newest version of video games from Microsoft, strengthen the idea that people loves playing games and the amusements gadgets not only target children but also adults. Unfortunately, we find that both movies and video games have been contaminated by sexual and violent contents. Some studies show that movie violence is more dangerous due to their popular nature and frequent exposure. A study by Craig A Anderson (2003) stated that there is relation between violent content on aggressive behavior and between the levels of violent displayed in games and the involvement of students in physical fights. Bibliography Anderson, Craig A. (2003). Violent Video Games: Myths, Facts and Unanswered Questions. Retrieved November 1, 2006 from apa. org/science/psa/sb-anderson. html Anderson, Craig A. (2003). The influence of Media Violence on Youth. Retrieved November 1, 2006 research. vt. edu/resmag/sc99/media_violence. html Dolak, Dave. (2006). Marketing Communications (Promotion) Mix. Retrieved November 2, 2006 from davedolak. com/promix. htm Gamingredients Playphoria. (2005). the Fall of SEGA. Retrieved November 11, 2006 from playphoria. com/features/history/thefallofsega/ Spong. (2006). Sony Ramps up PSP Advertising. . Retrieved November 2, 2006 from http://news. spong. com/article/9822? cb=814 Time Inc. 2005. A History of Video Game Consoles. time. com/time/covers/1101050523/console_timeline/

Philosopher Hypatia of Ancient Alexandria

Philosopher Hypatia of Ancient Alexandria Known for: Greek intellectual and teacher in Alexandria, Egypt, known for mathematics and philosophy, martyred by Christian mob Dates: born about 350 to 370, died 416 Alternate spelling: Ipazia About Hypatia Hypatia was the daughter of Theon of Alexandria who was a teacher of mathematics with the Museum of Alexandria in Egypt. A center of Greek intellectual and cultural life, the Museum included many independent schools and the great library of Alexandria. Hypatia studied with her father, and with many others including Plutarch the Younger. She herself taught at the Neoplatonist school of philosophy. She became the salaried director of this school in 400. She probably wrote on mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy, including about the motions of the planets, about number theory and about conic sections. Accomplishments Hypatia, according to sources, corresponded with and hosted scholars from other cities. Synesius, Bishop of Ptolemais, was one of her correspondents and he visited her frequently. Hypatia was a popular lecturer, drawing students from many parts of the empire. From the little historical information about Hypatia that survives, it is surmised by some that she invented the plane astrolabe, the graduated brass hydrometer, and the hydroscope, with Synesius of Greece, who was her student and later colleague.  The evidence may also point to simply being able to construct those instruments. Hypatia is said to have dressed in the clothing of a scholar or teacher, rather than in womens clothing. She moved about freely, driving her own chariot, contrary to the norm for womens public behavior. She was credited by the surviving sources as having political influence in the city, especially with Orestes, the Roman governor of Alexandria. Hypatias Death The story by Socrates Scholasticus written soon after Hypatias death and the version written by John of Nikiu of Egypt more than 200 years later disagree in considerable detail, although both were written by Christians.  Both seem to be focused on justifying the expulsion of the Jews by Cyril, the Christian bishop, and on associating Orestes with Hypatia. In both, Hypatias death was a result of a conflict between the Orestes and Cyril, later made a saint of the church. According to Scholasticus, an order of Orestes to control Jewish celebrations met with approval by Christians, then to violence between the Christians and the Jews. The Christian-told stories make it clear that they blame the Jews for the mass killing of Christians, leading to the banishment of the Jews of Alexandria by Cyril.  Cyril accused Orestes of being a pagan, and a large group of monks who came to fight with Cyril attacked Orestes. A monk who injured Orestes was arrested and tortured.  John of Nikiu accuses Orestes of inflaming the Jews against the Christians, also telling a story of the mass killing of Christians by Jews, followed by Cyril purging the Jews from Alexandria and converting the synagogues to churches.  Johns version leaves out the part about a large group of monks coming to town and joining the Christian forces against the Jews and Orestes. Hypatia enters the story as someone associated with Orestes and suspected by the angry Christians of advising Orestes not to reconcile with Cyril.  In John of Nikius account, Orestes was causing people to leave the church and follow Hypatia.  He  associated her with Satan and accused her of converting people away from Christianity. Scholasticus credits Cyrils preaching against Hypatia with inciting a mob led by fanatical Christian monks to attack Hypatia as she drove her chariot through Alexandria. They dragged her from her chariot, stripped her, killed her, stripped her flesh from her bones, scattered her body parts through the streets, and burned some remaining parts of her body in the library of Caesareum.  Johns version of her death is also that a mob for him justified because she beguiled the people of the city and the prefect through her enchantments stripped her naked and dragged her through the city until she died. Legacy of Hypatia Hypatias students fled to Athens, where the study of mathematics flourished after that. The Neoplatonic school she headed continued in Alexandria until the Arabs invaded in 642. When the library of Alexandria was burned, the works of Hypatia were destroyed.  That burning happened primarily in Roman times.  We know her writings today through the works of others who quoted her even if unfavorably and a few letters written to her by contemporaries. Books About Hypatia Dzielska, Maria.  Hypatia of Alexandria.  1995.Amore, Khan.  Hypatia.  2001. (a novel)Knorr, Wilbur Richard.  Textual Studies in Ancient and Medieval Geometry. 1989.Nietupski, Nancy. Hypatia: Mathematician, Astronomer, and Philosopher.  Alexandria  2.Kramer, Edna E. Hypatia.  The Dictionary of Scientific Biography.  Gillispie, Charles C. ed. 1970-1990.Mueller, Ian. Hypatia (370?-415).  Women of Mathematics. Louise S. Grinstein and Paul J. Campbell, ed. 1987.Alic, Margaret.  Hypatias Heritage: A History of Women in Science from Antiquity Through the Nineteenth Century.  1986. Hypatia appears as a character or theme in several works of other writers, including in  Hypatia, or New Foes with Old Faces, a historical novel by Charles Kingley.

Presenting song as poem Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Presenting song as poem - Essay Example This kind of music usually uses a simple vocabulary, and known words ."Dear mama" opens with a statement that shows there will be not so many sophisticated words: "You are appreciated". So, the message and the theme of the poem are stated very clear and directly. In this case this sentence , according to the style of music is equivalent to all the literary devices used in other poems or songs. Even this thing happens it does not mean this song has less suggestive meaning. The word choice is much more related to the events that influenced the speaker's attitude or feelings about his mother: the problems from school, with the police, Thanksgiving Day. The speaker uses the blacks' dialect or the street language for showing an affiliation to a group. Here his mother is shown as an icon, "black queen", "sweet lady", but she also has a terrestrial side, understanding and helping him. Being a straight song the figurative language is not so much used , but it can still be found some literary devices. At the beginning of the text the speaker makes a simile between his family and other ones: "Over tha years we wuz poorer than tha other little kids", his condition being much poorer.

Pan European Fish Auctions Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Pan European Fish Auctions - Case Study Example PEFA's system is an electronically based system that uses client/server architecture, whereby, the suppliers/sellers are connected to the system through the Intranet, while the buyers connect to the system using the internet. Online auctioning has revealed several advantages over the period of time that were just not possible with the conventional on-site auctioning; this is the reason why online auctions are probably the most renowned form of e-commerce in the present day world. On-line auctioning has been a tremendous interactive opportunity for both buyers and sellers, communicating with each other at their respective ease. Some of the advantages to the sellers and the buyers are mentioned as below: 1. One of the major advantages of online auctioning is its allowance to the fishermen, or any seller for that matter, to address a huge and diversified range of customers. Internet reaches the globe, thus anything on the internet is globally accessed, so the reach is beyond the localities. 7. There is lesser cost of selling associated i.e. ... 3. There is immense demand for fishes in the southern part of Europe, while major supply is in the north, so it's an opportunity for the suppliers to meet the customers and directly sell to them. 4. This also gives birth to the phenomenon of disintermediation, whereby, intermediaries are eliminated, again giving birth to increased margins and yet consumer friendly prices. 5. In online bidding, with huge number of buyers, the bidding is quite competitive, with lesser chances of customers forming a cartel or anything of similar sort so the customer is at advantage. 6. The time to the market, often referred to as the Lead time, is reduced, which keeps the fishes fresh in turn increasing its worth and value. 7. There is lesser cost of selling associated i.e. just 0.2%. As mentioned in the case example, the commission of auction house on $93 is $7, which is approximately 7.52%, while in online auction; it would be $0.18 only. 8. There are some small ports that are not able to generate enough value and are often overlooked. Through online auctioning, these ports and their respective sellers also gain access to a competitive market. 9. There is buyer authentication in terms of security deposits. Advantages to Buyers 1. Online auction gives buyers more options to buy from by providing more and more information on what is available at the auction and at which ports. 2. The buyers have access to the bid placement at all times i.e. 24/7, which allows buyers from different time zones to also interact. 3. The lesser transaction cost reduced time for transaction, literally within seconds, attracts buyers more than anything because time is precious. 4. Online Auction

Inclusion Equal Opportunities And Diversity Education Essay Essay Example for Free

Inclusion Equal Opportunities And Diversity Education Essay Essay In 21st century classrooms, there are more and more children coming from much more diverse backgrounds. Teachers need to teach these children with effective teaching methods and must therefore have pedagogical approaches that deepen their cultural understanding. Many of these children have a range of ability in language, abilities and culture. Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education (CSIE) stated that teachers must employ not only theoretically sounds but also culturally responsive pedagogy. Teachers must create a classroom culture where all children, regardless of their cultural or linguistic backgrounds are welcomed and supported and provided with the best learning opportunity. What is inclusion? Inclusive education is concerning equality and human rights. Inclusion is more than an understanding and a policy requirement. It is on the subject of respect and values which welcomes diversity in the classroom and a wider part of society. The inclusion statement n the National Curriculum (DfEE/QCA 1999) stated that differentiation from a wide variety of needs and the planning of lessons to ensure access and participation was part of normal teaching. This point was further emphasised by Overall Sangster (2007) saying that it is about meeting the different needs of as many children as possible in mainstream schooling. What are equal opportunities? Equal opportunities are about being inclusive and fair in the way you deal with all children. Treating all children the same is not enough. Overall Sangster (2007) define fair to be when the teacher meets the needs of every child as far as they can. What is diversity? Diversity is something that is becoming more and more popular in the classroom. In simple terms, diversity just means that are is a variety of different types of children in the classroom. Not only is it a professional standard to develop an understanding of the cultural diversity in their class but it is also a legal requirement (Children Act, 1989, 2004), but are these legal requirements being met? Are these evident in schools? Figures from the Department for Children, Schools and Families show that last year saw the biggest year-on-year increase in pupils from ethnic minorities. Across the country, they accounted for almost 22% in 2007 compared to 20. 6% in 2006. From these figures it is clear to see that inclusion, equal opportunities and diversity are part of the ‘norm’ classroom and need to be therefore addressed appropriately. I will now discuss what it means for a school to be inclusive and if a school is ‘effective’ does it mean that it has to be inclusive as well? I will also look at barriers to learning and how they are overcome. School Inclusion It is important for schools to be inclusive. Hayes (2004) believes that inclusion is best understood as an aim, aspiration or even a philosophy, rather than as a set of techniques that can be applied to a situation. It is important for a school to aim to be inclusive to everyone in the school, whether this is towards children, teachers or other members of staff. Inclusion tends to be regarded as ‘the right thing to do’ and it is this moral imperative than often makes teachers feel guilty about saying anything negative about inclusive policies and practices. It is important to remember that a positive attitude to inclusion has an impact on the process of developing inclusive teaching strategies (Halliwell, 2003). As a trainee teacher, it is important for me to understand that inclusion is a process that is influenced by a number of different factors and has a different meaning for everyone involved. From experience, I have seen inclusion being carried out. This occurred during assembly when the whole school came together for their Friday ‘celebration assembly’. During this assembly, birthdays were announced and the children came to the front. All teachers and children joined in with singing happy birthday while as the same time signing it. This was a lovely experience to observe. The school as a whole were including everyone. Although there are many different indicators of inclusion to reflect on such as policies, practises and experiences of individuals learning, it is also my aim to carry these out. Such policies include Inclusive Schooling (DfES 2001b). This document provides practical advice to schools and LEA’s on the inclusion framework and sets out seven principles of an inclusive education service. The Every Child Matters Policy (DfES 2003, 2004a, 2004b) has according to Arthur, Grainger and Wray (2006) ‘served to set educational inclusion within the broader context of radical change in the whole system of children’s services including explicitly shifting from intervention to prevention with services working together more effectively’. The overall aim of Every Child Matters is to reduce the number of children who experience educational failure, engage in offending or antisocial behaviour, suffer from ill health or become teenage parents (DfES 2003). The Every Child Matters aims are said to be at the heart of Children Act 2004 (Arthur, Grainger and Wray 2006). Finally, according to Overall and Sangster (2007) the idea of an inclusive school is one that will meet the needs of many pupils in a variety of ways; within special classes, through support for individuals, differentiation in the curriculum and carefully thought through teaching, is an exciting idea. This is something that I should really develop as part of my philosophy of inclusive education. Barriers Inclusion is about looking for ways of reducing the barriers to learning that may exist for children who present more challenging circumstances. Prejudice and stereotyping are often significant in creating and maintaining these barriers (Overall and Sangster 2007). Within The National Curriculum (DfEE/QCA 1999) three principles were set out to develop a more inclusive education. Within these principles, the third is to ‘overcome potential barriers to learning and assessment for individuals and group of pupils’. These groups of pupils can range from SEN to EAL to Gifted and Talented. Overcoming barriers is further emphasised in Inclusive Schooling (DfES 2001b) with one of the principles stating ‘schools, local education authorities and others should actively seek to remove barriers to learning and participation’. Overcoming potential barriers to learning and assessment is relevant to all children who have already been identified to have an emotional, mental or physical need. Teachers must plan to meet these needs and also the needs of the rest of the class at the same time. One method of doing this is to pair a pupil with EAL with a pupil who is good at English. Peer encouragement is a great way of encouraging talk. I witnessed an example with an emotionally vulnerable child. This particular child was getting frustrated and upset when they couldn’t do their times tables because other pupils around the table were counting aloud and therefore interfering with this pupil’s train of thought. To resolve this problem, the pupil was sent into a quieter room where there was full concentration of the subject. As a trainee teacher, I need to plan my lessons which overcome barriers which I may face in delivering a lesson or scheme of work. Conclusion Schools should all have an inclusion, equal opportunities and diversity policy in place and one that is being actively carried out by all pupils and members of staff. It is important that I am positive about the right for all children to be valued and to receive the best education available for them. This can be helped by implementing and receiving guidance from local education authorities or attending extra training days. From reading I have learnt to develop my own pedagogy with regard to inclusion, equal opportunities and diversity. As a training professional I have a unique opportunity to contribute to developing my own personal practice and help with developing policies with other colleagues. My aim now is to need all the needs of the children who I will be teaching both on placement now and in the future with my own class of children.

Essay --

Volleyball is a very popular sport. It is played throughout the world on state, national, and international levels. The weight pressed on certain parts of a female athlete’s body can negatively affect her bone structure. The upper and lower appendages and the neck structure of female athletes have been known to experience detrimental effects when subjected to the loading modalities, and the different stages of menopause affect the bone mineral densities in specific parts of the bone structure in female athletes. Various sports have been shown to help develop higher bone masses at loaded bone sites. For example, high-impact and odd-impact loadings produce the strongest bone structure in the lower extremities, such as the legs; and high-magnitude loading produces the strongest bone structure in the upper extremities, such as the arms and torso. The lower extremities have the weight-bearing component, which is needed for the dynamic loading required, and muscle performance is primarily focused in the lower extremities. The upper extremities contain the nonweight-bearing component, but unlike the weight-bearing bones, no bone loss has been found (Nikander et al. 2006). A study was performed in order to better understand how different sports and their loadings on the bone structure affect muscle performance and joint moment, depending on the structures of the upper and lower extremities. The purpose of the study was to see if dense bone masses help construct stronger bone structures in athletes and if the nonweight-bearing upper extremity affects bone structure. The subjects that were tested consisted of one hundred and thirteen female athletes. These athletes were representative of volleyball, hurdling, tennis, badminton, squa... ... of the three menopausal stages experienced some bone loss, but the athletes were shown to have higher bone masses. The femoral neck was strengthened due to the different impact loadings on the area. The athletic training and history of volleyball players were a benefit to the bone mass and structure because there was not much loss or detrimental effects of these areas. The preconditioning of the athletes aided in how the bone structure would be affected by the different loading modalities. Like that of the bone structure of the nonathletic referents that were observed in the studies, bone structures at first could be severely affected by the high-impact and odd-impact loadings of volleyball. But, as athletes become used to the various loadings on different parts of their bodies, positive correlations between the loadings and the bone structure and mass occur.

Animal Farm: Equality of Animal Among Others Essay

â€Å"All animals are equal†¦ but some animals are more equal than others.† The largest single struggle throughout the entire story of Animal Farm would have to be the animals struggle for equality. The animals are forced to suffer through terrible conditions under the leadership of Mr. Jones. The brainwashing effect the pigs had on the farm caused many of the animals to forget the principles of equality and accept the hypocritical nature of Napoleon and his minions. A time when the animals had the least amount of rights and the least amount of equality was during the reign of Mr. Jones. Under the leadership of Mr. Jones, the animals had to suffer through terrible conditions while the humans got to stay in warm and comfortable beds. The animals also had to supply for not only themselves, but also the gluttonous humans who were constantly mooching off the animals and eating most of the food. Finally the animals suffered a terrible amount of neglect during the time of Mr. Jones and were all beaten savagely. Although the humans were far more prosperous than the animals, the animals were all equal among one another. The greatest time of equality among the animals would be during the time of their great leader Snowball. Snowball proved to be the best leader the farm ever had and constantly campaigned to make animals equal. Snowball displayed his lust for equality by creating weekly meetings were the animals had time to discuss what was happening on the farm and argue points. Snowball also made every animal work to their own capacity and no animal took on a harder work load than they could handle. Finally Snowball pushed to have a windmill that would bring electricity to each animals stall. With the passing of Snowball and rise of Napoleon, the animals found themselves back to suffering under the same conditions that they faced during the reign of Mr. Jones. For one the pigs decided to sleep in the beds of the farmhouse where none of the other animals were allowed. Also the pigs started slaughtering other animals seemingly at random due to ludicrous conspiracy theories. Finally the common everyday animals were killed if they tried to retire while the pigs were rewarded a long and peaceful retirement. The government of the farm had made a complete circle during the course of its three prominent leaders. The government went from total dictatorship to a democracy and then back to a dictatorship. It is uncertain as to what the animals lives would have been like with Snowball but one thing is certain. The animals are not equal. The only thing that remains true under the leadership of Napoleon is the hypocritical oxymoron that is, â€Å"All animals are equal†¦ but some animals are more equal than others.†

Fear of Crime

Introduction Fear of Crime in members of our society today has been widely researched. For the purpose of this essay, fear of crime is used in the context of an individual’s perceived risk of becoming a victim of crime. In this essay it is argued that the elderly and the youngest members of our society are the most fearful of crime and that, of these age groups the elderly have the lowest risk of becoming victims of crime. Firstly, research shows that fear of crime is wide spread and that certain age groups are more fearful of becoming victims than others. Secondly, that the Media’s portrayal of crimes contributes to society’s perceptions of safety and crime itself, increasing fear of crime in these age groups. Thirdly, that the Elderly fears of crime and perceived risk of victimisation is also contributed to by social and physiological factors, such as vulnerability that leads to altered lifestyle changes. Data confirms that levels of victimisation rates are low for the elderly but high for the young, which is in contrast to those in the elderly age group having heightened levels of fear. In conclusion, fear of crime is becoming a serious societal issue as our population ages being that the elderly are becoming the most fearful of crime whilst the youngest age group with the highest fear are most likely to become victims of crime. Discussion Firstly, we see that in modern society today that a growing fear of crime is widely recognised. It is acknowledged that the elderly aged 65 and over, and the youngest members aged 16 – 24 of our society have the highest fear of crime in comparison to other age groups(Johnson, 2005). Australia has an aging population (James, 1992 p. 1), for those 85 and over numbers has doubled and there are increased numbers of those aged 65 and over. The last twenty years spanning from 1990 to 2010 has seen the number of elderly people in our society increase by 170%; in comparison to around 30% for total population growth for Australia, where those age 15 are seen to be decreasing (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2010). This correlated to the findings from the 2004 International Crime Victimisation Survey (Johnson, 2005) showing that the age groups 15 – 24 and 65 and over were the most likely to answer the series of questions asked around feelings of safety when walking alone at night, utilising or waiting for public transportation at night and whether they believed they would be victims of burglary in the ext year as unsafe or very unsafe. Secondly, it is argued that the Media’s representations of criminal acts and events through sensationalised stories depicting crimes that are violent and those with a sexual nature; these have contributed to and influenced levels of fear and perceptions of risk for the age groups 15 – 24, and 65 years and over. The first edition of Violence Today (Chappell, 1989) links society’s perceptions of violent crime to media stories and publicity that is focussed on crimes of a violent nature that attributes to growing fears of crime posturing â€Å"Australia is succumbing to a torrent of crime beyond the control of traditional system of traditional law† (Chappell, 1989). The focus on violent and sexually explicit crimes by the media has left our society with the misconception that these sorts of crimes are an everyday occurrence. The Australian Survey of Social Attitudes (Roberts & Indermaur, Australian Institute of Criminology 2007) recorded that over half of those aged 65 and over believed that crime had increased over a period of two years before the survey was completed, this is attributed to an individual’s media consumption – whether it be newspapers, internet or television – of factual or fictional medians (Kort-Butler & Sittner Hartshorn, 2011). The Australian Survey of Social Attitudes also collected data on the medians that individuals get their crime and criminal justice beliefs and views from, and observed â€Å"that the media remains the most important source in informing Australians’ views of crime†(Roberts & Indermaur, Australian Institute of Criminology 2007 p. 9). The importance given to certain crimes in the daily newspapers and other media sources shows us proof to the fact that crime is a topic that has the public’s interest and is a focus of their worries (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2001). It goes on to discuss the fact that crime as reported on by the media increases the public’s levels of fears and that there is little or no correlation to actual levels of violent crime in our society today. Thirdly, crime victimisation data collected by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (2008-2009, p. 17) reflects that those 65 and above are the least likely to be victims of crime with a victimisation rate much lower than all other age groups in the category of personal assault. This cannot be said or the younger age groups of 16 -24 who’s fear of crime can be linked to high numbers of victimisation in the same category. Carcach, Graycar & Muscat (2001) attribute social and communal activities that elderly people partake in to this anomaly between the elderly fear of crime and victimisation rates. The change in activities of the elderly over time may contribute to the lower victimisation rates reported where on the other hand the young tend to have many more communal social activities which serve to increase their chances of victimisation. The data collected from the Crime Victimisation Survey (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2008-2009) although it showed very little difference between the fear levels for the youngest age group and that of the older age group of 65 and over the differences in social activities and community relationships and the fact that the elderly are far less likely to be out alone without a companion, or travelling on public transport or waiting for the same can be accounted for, by personal vulnerability. A key concept used to explain high levels of perceived risk of victimisation is that of vulnerability. Powell & Wahidin (2007, p. 94) assert â€Å"the fear of crime operates on a myriad of emotional and practical levels from feeling vulnerable and isolated, to affecting personal well – being†. Vulnerability has been attributed to contributing to fear of crime within the elderly age group (Carcach et al, 2001). It has been argued that ‘personal vulnerability’ (Franklin, Franklin & Fearn, 2008 p. 06), the inability for an individual to protect themselves due to lack of physical strength (James, 1992) and the feelings of â€Å"powerlessness to resist attack’ (Callanan & Teasdale, 2009 p. 362) and their worry of being able to heal from an act of victimisation (Johnson, 2005 p. 33) explains the disparity between higher levels of fear and that of actual victimisation. Cossman & Rader (2011, p. 143) add further to this that most elderly people are now livi ng alone, either having lost a lifetime partner through death, or hospitalisation due to frailty or illness also attributes to higher levels of fear of crime. A workshop held between several services and organisations in South Australia on Crime and the Elderly identified that elderly people thought themselves to be the most victimised by crime, that during the day break-ins caused them fear, however break-ins with the potential for personal assault caused the most fear after dark, these fears impacted on all aspects of their lives, which in turn has restricted and isolated them from their communities and the lifestyles they have been previously accustomed to living. Doherty, 1991, p. 1)(Johnson, 2005, p. 29) The elderly by far have the highest levels of fear that are based on misconceptions that they perceive about crime in our society today. The young 15– 24 years of age perceive their risk of victimisation to be high and statistics show that in 2005 this age group had the highest victimisation rate for crimes against the person ( Australian Institute of Criminology, 2006). Conclusion Fear of crime in our society has far reaching implications, Australia has an aging population that exhibits one of the highest levels of fear of crime that can be attributed to feelings of vulnerability, yet statistics have shown the elderly to be the least likely to be victims of crime. Their perceived fear of victimisation has lead to changes in their lifestyles in order to protect themselves, based on misconceived notions that they are the most victimised in society. The young aged 16-24 years of age also have a high level of perceived risk from crime but this is in proportion to the victimisation rates recorded for this age group. Perceptions of fear and perceived risk of crime are contributed to by the media’s portrayal of crimes that have a violent or sexual nature which further serves to contribute to a growing fear of crime. The fact that society tends to get its views and beliefs of crime and criminal justice from the media means that misconceptions about the perceived risk of victimisation tend to be over the top and misinformed. References Australian Institute of Criminology 2006, Australian Crime: facts and figures 2005, Crime Facts Info, no. 120, Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2001, ‘Measuring Wellbeing: Frameworks for Australian Social Statistics, 2001, cat. no. 4160. 0’ Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra. Australian Bureau of Statistics, ‘2008-2009, Crime Victimisation, Australia, cat. no 4530. 0, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra. Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2010, ‘Population by Age and Sex, Australian States and Territories, cat. No. 3201. 0’, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra. Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2010, Australian Social Trends, cat no. 4102. 0, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra. Callanan, V. J. , & Teasdale, B. (2009). ‘An exploration of gender differences in measurement of fear of crime’. Feminist Criminology, 4(4), 359-376. doi:10. 1177/1557085109345462  Ã‚  Ã‚   Carcach, C. Graycar, A. & Muscat, G. 2001 ‘The Victimisation of Older Australians’, Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, no. 212, Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra. Chappell, D, 1989. Violence Today, no. 1 Violence, Crime and Australian Society’, National Committee on Violence, Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra. Doherty, B. 1991, Home Assist – A new approach to House Security, Department of Employment and Further Education, Adelaide. Fearn, N. E. , Franklin, T. W. , & Franklin, C. A. (2008). ‘A multilevel analysis of the vulnerab ility, disorder, and social integration models of fear of crime’. Social Justice Research, 21(2), 204-227. doi:10. 1007/s11211-008-0069-9   Hartshorn, K. J. S. , & Kort? Butler, L. A. (2011). Watching the Detectives: Crime Programming, Fear of Crime, and Attitudes about the Criminal Justice System’, Sociological Quarterly, 52(1), 36-55. doi:10. 1111/j. 1533-8525. 2010. 01191. x   James, M. 1992, ‘The Elderly as Victims of Crime, Abuse and Neglect’, Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, no. 37, Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra. Johnson, H. 2005, ‘Crime Victimisation in Australia: Key Results of the 2004 International Crime Victimisation Survey’, Research and Public Policy Series, no. 64, Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra. Powell, J. & Wahidin. A. (2008). ‘Understanding old age and victimisation: A critical exploration’. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy,  28(3/4), 90-99. doi:10. 1108/01443330810862160 Rader, N. , & Cossman, J. (2011). ‘Fear of Crime and Personal Vulnerability: Examining Self-Reported Health’, Sociological Spectrum,  31(2), 141-162. doi:10. 1080/02732173. 2011. 541339 Roberts, L. & Indermaur, D. 2007, ‘What Australians think: about crime and justice: results from the 2007 Survey of Social Attitudes’, Research and Public Policy Series 101, Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra.

Julius Caesar Summary and Study Guide

Julius Caesar Summary and Study Guide J​ulius Caesar may have been the greatest man of all times. His birth date was July 12/13, probably in the year 100 B.C., although it may have been in 102 B.C. Caesar died March 15, 44 B.C., which date is known as the Ides of March. By age 39/40, Julius Caesar had been a widower, divorce, governor (propraetor) of Further Spain, captured by pirates, hailed imperator by adoring troops, quaestor, aedile, consul, named to an important priesthood, and elected pontifex maximus (although he may not have been installed) a lifelong honor usually reserved for the end of a mans career. What was left for his remaining 16/17 years? That for which Julius Caesar was most well known: the Triumvirate, military victories in Gaul, the dictatorship, civil war, and, finally, assassination. Julius Caesar was a general, a statesman, a lawgiver, an orator, an historian, and a mathematician. His government (with modifications) endured for centuries. He never lost a war. He fixed the calendar. He created the first news sheet, Acta Diurna, which was posted on the forum to let everyone who cared to read it know what the Assembly and Senate were up to. He also instigated an enduring law against extortion. Caesar vs. the Aristocracy He traced his ancestry to Romulus, putting him in as aristocratic a position as possible, but his association with his uncle Marius populism put Julius Caesar in political hot water with many of his social class. Under the penultimate Roman king, Servius Tullius, the patricians developed as the privileged class. The patricians then took over as the ruling class when the Roman people, who were fed up with kings, drove out Servius Tullius murderer and successor. This Etruscan king of Rome was referred to as Tarquinius Superbus Tarquin the Proud. With the end of the period of kings, Rome entered into the period of the Roman Republic. At the start of the Roman Republic, the Roman people were mainly farmers, but between the fall of the monarchy and the rise of Julius Caesar, Rome changed dramatically. First, it mastered Italy; then it turned its sights to the Carthaginian hold on the Mediterranean, to gain supremacy over which it needed a fighting naval force. Citizen fighters left their fields prey to land speculators, although if all went well, they returned home with ample booty. Rome was building its remarkable empire. Between slaves and the conquered wealth, the hard-working Roman became the luxury-seeking spendthrift. Real work was carried out by slaves. A rural lifestyle gave way to urban sophistication. Rome Avoided Kings The governing style that developed as an antidote to monarchy originally included severe limitations on the power of any one individual. But by the time large-scale, enduring wars became the norm, Rome needed powerful leaders whose terms would not end mid-battle. Such men were called dictators. They were supposed to step down after the crisis for which they were appointed, although during the late Republic, Sulla had put his own time limits on his term as dictator. Julius Caesar became dictator for life (literally, perpetual dictator). Note: Although Julius Caesar may have been the permanent dictator, he was not the first Roman emperor. The conservatives resisted change, seeing the downfall of the Republic in every nuance of reform. Thus Julius Caesars murder was incorrectly hailed by them as the only way back to the old values. Instead, his murder led to the rise of, first, civil war, and next, the first Roman princeps (from which we get the word prince), whom we refer to as the Emperor Augustus.​ There are only a few names of the great men and women of the ancient world whom almost everyone recognizes. Among these is the last dictator of the Roman Republic, Julius Caesar, whose assassination Shakespeare immortalized in his play,  Julius Caesar. Here are some of the main points to know about this great Roman leader. 1. Caesars Birth Julius Caesar was probably born 3 days before the  Ides of July, in 100 B.C. That date would be July 13. Other possibilities are that he was born on July 12 in 100 B.C. or that he was born on July 12 or 13 in the year 102 B.C. 2. Caesars Pedigreed Family His fathers family was from the patrician gens of the Julii. The Julii traced its lineage to the first king of Rome, Romulus, and the goddess  Venus  or, instead of Romulus, to Venus grandson Ascanius (aka Iulus or Jullus; whence Julius). One patrician branch of the Julian gens was called Caesar. [See  Surnames of the Julii from UNRV.] Julius Caesars parents were Gaius Caesar and Aurelia, daughter of Lucius Aurelius Cotta. 3. Familial Ties Julius Caesar was related by marriage to  Marius. The first 7-time consul, Marius supported the and opposed  Sulla. Sulla supported the  optimates. (It is common, but inaccurate to consider the  optimates  like the conservative party and the  populares  like the liberal party of modern political systems.) Perhaps more familiar to military history buffs, Marius drastically reformed the military during the Republican period. 4. Caesar and the Pirates The young Julius went to Rhodes to study oratory, but on his way he was captured by pirates whom he charmed and seemingly befriended. After he was freed, Julius arranged to have the pirates executed. 5. Cursus Honorum QuaestorJulius entered the course of advancement (cursus honorum) in the Roman political system as quaestor in 68 or 69 B.C.Curule AedileIn 65 B.C., Julius Caesar became curule aedile and then managed to be appointed to the position of  pontifex maximus, contrary to convention, since he was so young.PraetorJulius Caesar became  praetor  for 62 B.C. and during that year divorced his second wife for not being above suspicion, in the Bona Dea scandal involving Claudius/Clodius Pulcher.ConsulJulius Caesar won one of the consulships in 59 B.C. The chief advantage for him of this top political position was that following the term in office, he would become governor (proconsul) of a lucrative province.ProconsulAfter his term as  consul, Caesar was sent to Gaul as the proconsul. 6. Caesars Promiscuity MistressesJulius Caesar himself was guilty of many extra-marital affairs, with Cleopatra, among others. One of the most significant relations was with Servilia Caepionis, the half-sister of Cato the Younger. Because of this relationship, it was thought possible that Brutus was Julius Caesars son.Male LoverJulius Caesar was taunted all his life with charges of having been the lover of King Nicomedes of Bithynia.WivesJulius Caesar married Cornelia, a daughter of Marius associate, Lucius Cornelius Cinna, then a relative of Pompey named Pompeia, and finally, Calpurnia. 7. Triumvirate Julius Caesar engineered a 3-way division of power with enemies Crassus and Pompey that was known as the Triumvirate. More on the 1st Triumvirate 8. Caesars Prose Second-year Latin students are familiar with the military side of Julius Caesars life. As well as conquering the Gallic tribes, he wrote about the  Gallic Wars  in clear, elegant prose, referring to himself in the third person. It was through his campaigns that Julius Caesar was finally able to work his way out of debt, although the third member of the triumvirate, Crassus, also helped. Caesars Gallic Wars Commentaries 9.Rubiconand Civil War Julius Caesar refused to obey the command of the Senate, but instead led his troops across the Rubicon river, which started civil war. 10. Ides of March and Assassination Julius Caesar was the Roman dictator with divine honors, but he didnt have a crown. In 44 B.C. conspirators, claiming they feared Julius Caesar was aiming to become king, assassinated Julius Caesar on the Ides of March. More on the Ides of March 11. Caesars Heirs Although Julius Caesar had a living son, Caesarion (not officially acknowledged), Caesarion was an Egyptian, the son of  Queen Cleopatra, so Julius Caesar adopted a great nephew, Octavian, in his will. Octavian was to become the first Roman emperor, Augustus. 12. Caesar Trivia Caesar was known to be careful or abstemious in his consumption of wine and was said to have been particular in his hygiene, including having himself depilitated. I dont have a source for this. Major Events in the Timeline of Julius Caesar 102/100 B.C. - July 13/12  - Caesars Birth84  - Caesar marries the daughter of L. Cornelius Cinna75  - Pirates capture Caesar73  - Caesar is elected Pontifex69  - Caesar is quaestor. Julia, Caesars aunt (Marius widow), dies. Cornelia, the wife of Caesar, dies67  - Caesar marries Pompeia65  - Caesar is elected Aedile63  - Caesar is elected Pontifex Maximus62  - Caesar is praetor. Caesar divorces Pompeia61  - Caesar is Propraetor of Further Spain60  - Caesar is elected Consul and forms the  Triumvirate59  - Caesar is Consul58  - Caesar defeats the Helvetii and Germans55  - Caesar crosses the Rhine and invades Britain54  - Caesars daughter, who is also Pompeys wife, dies53  - Crassus is killed52  - Clodius is murdered; Caesar defeats Vercingetorix49  - Caesar crosses the  Rubicon  -  Civil War  begins48  - Pompey is murdered46  - Thapsus Battle (Tunisia) against Cato and Scipio. Caesar made dictator. (Third time.)45 or 44 (Before Luperca lia)  - Caesar is declared dictator for life; literally perpetual dictator* Ides of March  - Caesar is assassinated *For most of us, the distinction between perpetual dictator and dictator for life is trivial; however, it is a source of controversy for some. Caesars final step, according to Alfoldi, was a compromise. He had been designated Dictator in perpetuum (Livy Ep. CXVI), or as the coins read, Dictator perpetuo (never, according to Alfoldi p. 36, perpetuus; note that Cicero** cited the dative, dictatori perpetuo, which could fit either form), apparently in the fall of 45 B.C. (Alfoldi pp. 14-15). He had taken up this new dictatorship upon the conclusion of his fourth annual dictatorship on or near February 15. (Mason Hammond. Review of Studien à ¼ber Caesars Monarchie by Andreas Alfà ¶ldi. The Classical Weekly, Vol. 48, No. 7, Feb. 28, 1955, pp. 100-102.) Cicero (106-43 B.C.) and Livy (59 B.C.-A.D. 17) were contemporaries of Caesar. Study Guide Non-Fiction Caesars Final Aims, by Victor Ehrenberg.  Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 68, (1964), pp. 149-161.Caesar: Life of a Colossus, by Adrian GoldsworthyCaesar, by Christian Meier. 1995Party Politics in the Age of Caesar, by Lily Ross Taylor. Reissued in 1995.The Roman Revolution, by Ronald Syme. 1969. Fiction Colleen McCulloughs  Masters of Rome  series provides a well researched historical fiction series on Julius Caesar: First Man in RomeThe Grass CrownFortunes FavoritesCaesars WomenCaesar, A NovelThe October Horse Questions to Consider What would have happened to Rome had Caesar remained in power?Would the Republic have continued?Was the change from Republic to Empire inevitable?Were Caesars assassins traitors?Was Caesar a traitor when he crossed the Rubicon?Under what circumstances is treason justified?Why is Caesar the greatest leader ever?What reasons are there for saying he was not?What are Caesars most important/lasting contributions?

33 Writing Terms You Should Know

33 Writing Terms You Should Know 33 Writing Terms You Should Know 33 Writing Terms You Should Know By Simon Kewin As with all activities, writing fiction involves getting to grips with professional jargon. The following are some of the more common terms you may come across as you learn your craft and market your writing. POV (Point of View): the eyes through which the events of a story are seen. MC: The main character in a story. WIP (Work in progress): the thing you are currently working on. Simsub (Simultaneous submission): submitting the same piece of work to more than one magazine/publisher at the same time. Multisub (Multiple submission): sending more than one work to the same magazine/publisher at the same time. MG (Middle Grade): generally speaking, readers between 8 and 12 years old. YA (Young Adult): generally speaking, readers between 12 and 18 years old. MS/MSS: MS means manuscript. MSS is the plural, manuscripts. GL: Guidelines, describing what a publisher is interested in seeing. DL: Deadline: the cut off-date for a submission. Query Letter: A concise (one-page) pitch of an idea to an agent/publisher, to see if they are interested in reading a manuscript. Bio: Biographical details as supplied to an agent or publisher, including, for example, any previous writing credits. Slush/Slushpile: A pile, often large, of unsolicited manuscripts sent to a publisher or editor. Beta Reader: A secondary reader (after the writer) who checks a work with a view to spotting mistakes or suggesting improvements. Copy Editor: Someone who edits a manuscript for grammatical mistakes as well as spotting plot inconsistencies etc. Proof Reader: A person who checks that the proof of a work (the version ready for printing) matches the original manuscript. NaNoWriMo: National Novel Writing Month actually fairly international these days. Participants attempt to write a complete novel in one month (November). The following are the definitions of the lengths of short stories, novels etc. employed by the Science Fiction Writers of America. Others may use different definitions. Short Story: A work under 7,500 words Novelette: A work of between 7,500 and 17,500 words Novella: A work of between 17,500 and 40,000 words Novel: A work of 40,000 words or more Flash Fiction: Very short fiction. Definitions vary, but less than 1,000 words and can be as short as 100 words or even less. Twitter Fiction : Fiction short enough to fit into a Tweet, i.e. up to 140 characters long. Finally, the following are some of the abbreviations you may come across to describe the various genres of fiction: SF: Science Fiction (or Speculative Fiction). HSF: Hard Science Fiction SSF: Soft Science Fiction F: Fantasy EF: Epic/High Fantasy DF: Dark Fantasy UF: Urban Fantasy MR: Magical Realism H: Horror GH: Gothic Horror Reference links: Science Fiction Writers of America NaNoWriMo (National Novel Writing Month) Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Fiction Writing category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:100 Beautiful and Ugly WordsConfusing "Passed" with "Past"How to Style Legislative Terms

History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 16

History - Essay Example The blue dragon is pictured moving in up and down waves like a fancy kite dragon I once saw flying in the air. It is a good luck sign in most Asian countries and is a very happy creature as compared with western dragons. It is in the classic ginger Jar shape. This kind of porcelain was really popular and expensive, since the cobalt blue dye had to be imported from India through China, so it was only used for dragons. These made their way west on the Silk Road, along with the rare and coveted silk to western European courts all the way to Great Britain even during the most isolationist times. The motif and some of the shape and technique was copied in the UK, as I have seen these before outside of the museum, even in boot sales. (Dragon Jar 2009) Things like this, spices and silk made the trade with the east very profitable, and controlling the Mediterranean was the key to domination. Mostly the trade was dominated by the Mughal Empire, China or the Portuguese. The next artifact I noticed in this collection was another lovely round teapot with a bird on it. Since it also originated in Korea during the same time period, I have to assume the bird is the Phoenix, the alter-ego of the Dragon even though it is very small, because the painting is done with Cobalt Blue. The teapot is in lovely condition and sports a ropy handle and a lid. It could also have been used to serve wine. Clear bottles were likely very rare in Asia as they were using more porcelain and clay, so this would not have been an unusual way to use a teapot. In the Chinese artifacts there were many beautiful dishes in porcelain from China, even one with the same kind of dragon on it, also pictured moving like a flying snake with six legs. This plate was very colorful in red, blue and green. It was even decorated on the underside, and must have been some household head’s prized

AS 3 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

AS 3 - Assignment Example As such, if there is an improper use of the resources, then there is someone who can be questioned and charged. Hence, it does away with conflicts that may arise due to misuse of these resources in the society. Also, property rights enhance trade in the society as individual owners can transact business, sell and buy their assets under the regulations set in the capitalist markets they operate. One contemporary policy that is aligned with the interpretation of the view by Marx on the primary role of property rights in the capability of capitalism to persist is that known as the National mining and minerals policy (Legal Information Institute, n.d.). The policy seeks to outline and articulate the role of the Federal government in boosting private ownership and enterprises. Yes, there are intrinsic social forces that work to challenge the function of property rights in a capitalist system. Some of these forces are those arising from corruption and greed among people in power. These people fail to follow the right and legal procedure permitted to own a property or properties. As such, they undermine the role of property rights in a capitalist system. Thus, they align with the view of Marx that private property is not the best means to deal with the inevitable truth of scarcity due to the instability they bring about on ownership in the

Schweitzer and his Reverence for Life Philosophy Research Paper

Schweitzer and his Reverence for Life Philosophy - Research Paper Example Albert Schweitzer’s ‘Reverence for Life’ philosophy not only applies to human beings, but states the importance of applying love, compassion, and caring to plants and animals as well. This philosophy can be seen as related to early modern attempts to integrate the teachings of Eastern religions into the Western worldview. In the history of many ethical philosophies around the world, regarding all living things as being sacred and equal to human life is a viewpoint that has been excluded as a social foundation for morality and ethics. Schweitzer accepted the truth to be that all life is sacred and holy, and from this believed we can only inflict death on another living being out of necessity. For most people in the world, love, compassion, and kindness extends to human beings only as a basis for morality, and animals or plants are viewed as subservient life forms whose views are not important to consult in developing society or the progress of evolution. For Albert Schweitzer, the ‘Reverence for Life’ philosophy was seen as a means to reform or change this moral failure in the West based upon the view that all of life is holy and sacred. Schweitzer’s philosophy drew heavily on the principles of Eastern religions, particularly Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism.... er, Schweitzer tried to live his views at the highest level and has become a symbol of humanitarianism and altruism in the service of an expanded view of life in the universe and moral awareness. Schweitzer’s ‘Reverence for Life’ philosophy can be seen in many ways as similar to Gandhi’s ‘Satyagraha,’ yet scholars state that the two historical figures never met directly. (Isaacs, 2008) Schweitzer himself writes that the teachings of Buddhism were discovered by him in following the Schopenhauer-Nietzsche lineage, and that Nietzsche’s â€Å"Exaltation for Life† philosophy impressed him along with the moral, Unitarian, and compassionate basis of Eastern religion in building his personal views. (Isaacs, 2008) One aspect that shows Schweitzer’s sincerity in humanitarianism is the fact that he returned to education to study medicine after already being a famous and respected writer on humanitarian philosophy. (Joy, 1950) His choi ce of the medicine profession and example of service in Africa was meant to be a living example of his humanitarian philosophy, and it was, in the highest sense. In contrast to the racism, imperialism, and brutality of some Europeans during the Colonial era, Schweitzer’s path of action can be seen as consistent with Christianity, with Eastern religions, and also with the combined moral essence that is gathered from study of all religions in unity. Schweitzer’s philosophy related to Theosophy, Anthroposophy, Satyagraha and other attempts by modern thinkers, scholars, and leaders in Europe to introduce the profound truths of Eastern religion to the West. Yet, Schweitzer’s focus on the humanitarian aspects of service which overcame the racist and violent aspects of Imperialism through peaceful non-violence and loving kindness cannot

Is Representative Democracy Really Democratic?

Is Representative Democracy Really Democratic? Introduction â€Å"You have two cows. All your neighbours pick someone to decide who gets the milk.† ^This running joke on Representative Democracy that captures it in one line got me thinking about Representative Democracy and the Social Justice Issue associated with it. Structure of the Paper This paper talks about Representative Democracy as the bigger ambit and concentrates on Electoral Democracy as its basic premise leading to injustice and makes Policy Recommendations by suggesting a model that makes the Policy Framing Process more inclusive, more just and more collectively as well as individually fair. My argument building starts by showing how Representative Democracy (Feature: Electoral Democracy) chooses Collective Justice over Individual Justice by following the Majority Rule and is not really representative. I would further through statistics show that in a country like India; the Collective Justice doesn’t remain Collective as the Majority isn’t real, which basically implies that the premise of majority that Democracy starts with, is in itself not adhered to. Violation of Individual Justice At its most fundamental incarnation, Representative Democracy is synonymous with Majority Rule. It’s a system of governance in which people choose their leaders by casting votes, giving rise to the usage of the term ‘Electoral Democracy.’ Theoretical-Practical Paradox: Theoretically, Electoral Democracy as a feature of Representative Democracy implies people within the country decide who will govern them. However, in reality, the existence of limited choice and the illusion of complete choice makes electoral democracy restrictive and non-representative in the truest sense. The voters have to pick their representatives from a subset of people, who are usually the ones with enough financial or political backing. This makes electoral democracy unjust, for the individual, as individuals are not really free to choose, they are only free to choose from the given choices. The Right to Rejection[i] passed by the Supreme Court of India in September’13, even though gives voters a â€Å"none of the above choice† that is the right to record disapproval of candidates, makes no provision yet to count the â€Å"rejection† votes. Therefore, this move is in reality, only symbolic and will not impact the results of the elections. The Right to Rejection, as it stands, does little to help individuals from being governed by the ones they don’t want to be governed by. Tyranny of the Collective Furthermore, where Electoral Democracy loses its representative character and violates Individual Justice in favour of Collective justice is its basic premise, the rule of the majority. In India, it has been noted there has been a declining margin of victory. The average margin of victory in a parliamentary constituency between 1962 and 2009 has decreased with time. From a 15% margin of victory in 1962, the average margin of victory has come down substantially to 9.7% in 2009, the thinnest margin since Independence with the average winning margin in parliamentary elections being 70,000 votes only. This evidence supports the claim electoral democracy isn’t really representative. The tyranny of the majority means that the will of the majority prevails over the minority. But if that is so, what is to stop a dominant group from using democracy to further entrench the oppression of minority groups? Worse yet, how will the interests of oppressed minorities ever be taken seriously if they can always be overruled by the votes of the majority? Despite Electoral Democracy sounding well in theory, there could be cases where a hostile, organized majority takes on the minority and systematically sidelines them, thus undermining the whole essence of democracy for the latter. Gujarat riots (2002 Gujarat Violence), and the way they helped create factionalism, leading to the right-wing forces to capitalize on the organized majoritys sentiment in the 2002 state elections in India is a classic example of this kind of failure. Democracy means collective self-governance among equals. If a segment of society push for the segregation and subjugation of another segment of society, then it is fundamentally undemocratic for it means undermining the ideal of collective self-rule. Slim majority still qualifies as majority and there is no bare minimum a contestant needs to get in order to be elected, he only needs to beat his competitors. In the view of its majoritarian nature, the fact that when it comes down to measuring the mood of the people, one cannot really ignore 49% of the people who voted against the selected candidate, casts a shadow over electoral democracy being fair and just. According to EB White, â€Å"Democracy is the recurrent suspicion that more than half of the people are right more than half the time.† The Actuality of Majority In the name of Collective Justice, Electoral Democracy hangs Individual Justice at the altar. Though, I understand that it is impossible to consider every opinion in the country and a choice has to be made between Individual and Collective Justice and Collective seems like the more obvious choice, I am going to further debunk Electoral Democracy by asserting that the Collective Justice in this case does not really account for a majority. Even though Electoral Democracy finds its roots in majority so as to say, it is not real majority and in fact all governments in such systems are elected by a minority of voters. Voter turnout has varied historically in India between 50-60%.[ii] So a potential winning majority of 51% of 60% of voters who turn out would imply the views of only about 30% of the nation. Additionally, according to estimates, in each Lok Sabha constituency in the country, the number of unregistered voters could be as high as 2.1 lakh.[iii] The votes can be touted as representative, but the election in itself can’t be called the same because of votes to seats ratio not being one. A party which gets 90% of national votes does not necessarily get 90% of seats, as seats depend on constituencies and their demographics. According to statistics, if we take the Congress Party for example, for every 1% share of the vote Congress garnered in 1977, it was rewarded with .9 seats. But in 1980, that changed drastically: a 1 percentage point increase in vote share was suddenly worth nearly 1.7 seats. Even very small changes in the vote share can have dramatic impacts on the number of seats won. For instance, in 1999 and 2009 the Congress Party won an almost identical share of votes (28.3 versus 28.5%, respectively but the partys seat share rose from 140 seats to nearly206 seats. What triggers this effect is how broadly spread/concentrated a partys vote share is at the level of individual constituencies. So in practice, a party may be winning only because its voter base lies in lesser populated constituencies which incidentally may be more in number than the heavily populated ones. At best, representative democracy with its focus on electoral democracy can be just for a sub group of the population at a particular point of time and not for the entire population itself. In such cases, Electoral Democracy is neither individually just nor collectively. Policy Recommendations Until an alternative model to Democracy is formulated which considers all individual opinions in the country, the violation of individual justice can be minimised by increasing the number of choices in terms of candidates available to individuals and by instituting quorums with respect to Right to Rejection, according to which when a certain percentage of population rejects the existing candidates, the polls should be held again with new candidates. Arrows impossibility theorem states that a clear order of preferences cannot be determined while adhering to mandatory principles of fair voting procedures, implying that for numerous decisions, it is impossible to aggregate individual preferences in a meaningful way. Given the difficulty in counting for the choices of all individuals in a particular country while forming the Government, collective justice, despite its demerits, is a feasible alternative, entailing the Rule of the Majority. However, what every country should strive towards is Real Majority, by increasing the voter base in the country, alongside voter turn outs by creating awareness in its populace. Another way of minimising the Tyranny of the Majority is by building Collective Intelligence. The degree to which various perspectives are included increases the collective intelligence of the whole. Mary Parker Follett understood the potential of dialogue and group process to create a larger whole within which both the individual and the collective are interdependent and in synergy, rather than opposed to one another. She wrote: The great cosmic force in the womb of humanity is latent in the group as its creative energy; that it may appear the individual must do his duty every moment. We do not get the whole power of the group unless every individual is given full value. It is the creative spontaneity of each which makes life march on irresistibly to the purposes of the whole. Our social and political organization must be such that this group life is possible. (1918) The notion that people living under a democratic government are ultimately responsible for that governments policies i.e. collective moral responsibility can be reinstated so that individuals as a part of a collective take rational decisions. What can make Representative Democracy more representative is a Right to recall an elected representative if the electorate is dissatisfied with his or her performance, instead of waiting for five years for the next election. Also, injustice that pertains to being governed by unwanted candidates can be minimised by including the voices of people in the Policy Making Process. What this would encompass is that irrespective of whether the candidate governing me is chosen by me or not, I still get to have a say in the policies I want for myself. This would take care of both cases, wherein my elected representative’s take on a certain policy is different from mine as well as when the representative isn’t the one I voted for. Thus, Electoral Democracy which proves to be a failing of Representative Democracy doesn’t become a major deterrent to actual representation in a model like Direct Democracy that deals with involvement of all individuals in Policy Planning and limits the power of the representatives. In Direct Democracy, citizens co-create government on a regular basis and not just at the time of the election. However, one must keep in mind the volatility of this form of democracy and if executed, it must be done through very small steps by letting people debate and make decisions on how to spend the government money that is allotted to their locality in the very beginning. Slowly, when this system stabilizes, more power could be given to people to debate and make decisions on issues in their town, district and so on. In cases where Direct Democracy as a model itself seems infeasible because of sheer numbers, higher citizen engagement should be encouraged and valued in examining broadly defined questions of regional or national importance through mechanisms such as Consensus Conferences (from Denmark), Planning Cells (from Germany) and Scenario Workshops. A combination of internet data and technology, big data and real time analysis can be fruitful in this regard. Portals such as Twitter[iv], Facebook, YouTube, etc. can be used to infer the general sentiment of people. Indices such as the Asian Barometer[v], Happy Barometer[vi] and projects like SPIDER[vii], HeyCrowd[viii], GovTogether[ix], VoteIQ[x], Democracy Audits, Actly[xi] should also be embraced at a large scale. Conclusion In the words of Sir Winston Churchill, â€Å"Many forms of Government have been tried, and will be tried in this world of sin and woe. No one pretends that democracy is perfect or all-wise. Indeed, it has been said that democracy is the worst form of government except all those other forms that have been tried from time to time. So till the time, a model comes which does away with Individual injustice, while maintaining Collective Justice, Democracy is our best bet and we should look at minimising the injustices perpetrated by it by experimenting with alternative models within Democracy and effective citizen engagement. Endnotes: [i] NDTV, Supreme Court gives voters right to reject all candidates in a poll, http://www.ndtv.com/article/cheat-sheet/supreme-court-gives-voters-right-to-reject-all-candidates-in-a-poll-424424, (September 27, 2013), Accessed on 27th February’14, 10 PM [ii] International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, Voter turnout data for India, http://www.idea.int/vt/countryview.cfm?id=105 Accessed on 27th February’14, 10 PM [iii] â€Å"His (Modi’s) assessment is that half of the 18 to 24 year-olds across the country are not registered or familiar with ways to enroll themselves even though the Election Commission has advertised the process. An estimate done by his key aides show the number of such unregistered voters could be as high as 1.5 lakh in each Lok Sabha constituency. Even the older unregistered could be as high as 60,000 voters.† Hindustan Times, Modi eyes young voters to clinch victory in 2014 polls, http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Modi-eyes-young-voters-to-clinch-victory-in-2014-polls/Article1-1125680.aspx, (September 22, 2013) Accessed on 27th February’14, 10 PM [iv] Co.Design, Infographic of the Day: Twitter Tracks the Entire Countrys Mood, http://www.fastcodesign.com/1661966/infographic-of-the-day-twitter-tracks-the-entire-countrys-mood Accessed on 27th February’14, 10 PM [v] Asian Barometer is an applied research program on public opinion on political values, democracy and governance across the region and represents a careful and systematic comparative survey of attitudes and values toward politics, power, reform and democracy. [vi] Vilnius mayor Arturas Zuokas insists that the Happiness Barometer is a â€Å"great tool for politicians,† pointing out that: â€Å"If we take a decision and see a sharp fall in the mood of the city, then we know we have done something horribly wrong.† [vii] SPIDER is a project which aims to create an enabling environment for dialogue on elections, democracy and good governance through capacity building on access to information and ICT skills. [viii] HeyCrowd is an entirely mobile opinion-sharing platform. [ix] GovTogether is a network to connect voters to politicians. [x] VoteIQ allows users to get political news/information, rate politicians, watchdog politicians and the media. [xi] Actly enables users to enter a politicians Twitter handle and briefly tweet an idea and hook a politician to a petition. References Accessed on 28th February, 2 PM http://www.taoofdemocracy.com/sample.html